Comparative\nAnalysis\nof Li-Ion Batteries with Carbonate-Based\nLiquid and PVdF-Based Gel Polymer Electrolytes: Performance, Temperature\nSensitivity, Aging Rate, and Life Cycle Assessment

This study compares\nlithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries utilizing\ncarbonate-based\nliquid electrolytes versus those with poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF)-based\ngel polymer electrolytes. The experimental results indicate that under\n1/2.5/5 C-rate current conditions, the maximum operating temperatures\nfor carbonate-based liquid and PVdF-based gel batteries are 20.44/22.16/27.84\nand 20.6/23.18/34.63 °C, respectively. The numerical analysis\nindicates that PVdF-based gel polymer batteries’ internal temperature\ngradient is better than that of carbonate-based liquid batteries,\nwhich can reduce the nonuniform aging rate by 0.0065%. However, the\nmean temperature of the gel polymer batteries is higher than that\nof carbonate-based liquid batteries due to the lower ion conductivity\nof the PVdF-based gel polymer electrolyte, which results in the overall\naging rate of PVdF-based gel polymer batteries being 0.2% higher than\nthat of carbonate-based liquid batteries. Furthermore, the life cycle\nassessment calculations reveal that the carbon footprints for PP/PE/PP\nmultilayer and PVdF-based gel polymer separators are 0.035 and 1.347\nkg CO<sub>2</sub>-eq per m<sup>2</sup>, respectively. Additionally,\na life cycle assessment evaluates the environmental impact of each\nelectrolyte type, considering factors such as material use, manufacturing\nprocesses, and end-of-life disposal. This analysis aims to guide the\nselection of battery technologies based on specific application needs\nand environmental considerations.