Patterns of perception of ecosystem services associated with trees outside forests along an urban-rural gradient. A case of Murang’a municipality, Kenya

Understanding how people perceive trees and their associated benefits is vital for effective management and sustainability. This paper investigates the variation in perceptions of ecosystem services provided by trees outside forests (TOF) across an urban-rural gradient in Murang’a municipality. The findings reveal significant differences, with location accounting for 8.5% of perception variation. Urban residents prioritize cultural and aesthetic values, while rural communities emphasize instrumental services such as fuelwood, income, and fodder provision, indicating the need for tailored tree-planting initiatives. Socioeconomic influences play a significant role, provisioning services such as fruit and fuelwood ranked highly among all socioeconomic groups due to their immediate utility, while cultural services were rated lower. No significant age-related differences in TOF perceptions were found, suggesting shared community experiences may bridge generational gaps. However, significant gender differences in perceptions of tourism-related services highlight the impact of gender roles on tree resource interactions. Educational attainment also emerged as a significant factor, with differing perceptions and values of fuelwood and construction materials based on education levels. Overall, the study emphasizes the importance of local contexts and socioeconomic factors in shaping ecosystem service perceptions, revealing gaps in understanding the role of biodiversity in ecosystem functionality that require further research.