Microplastics in the Human Body: A Comprehensive Review of Exposure, Detection, and Health Risks

Microplastics, pervasive environmental contaminants, present a growing threat to human health through diverse exposure routes and systemic bioaccumulation. This review provides current knowledge on human exposure pathways, including ingestion of contaminated food and water, inhalation of airborne particles, and dermal absorption from consumer products. Detection challenges in human tissues are examined, emphasizing advancements in spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. These techniques reveal widespread microplastic presence in blood, organs, and biological fluids. The analysis outlines mechanisms by which these MP particles induce oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and cellular toxicity across multiple organ systems. Cardiovascular risks emerge from particle-induced endothelial dysfunction and plaque instability, while neurotoxic effects stem from blood-brain barrier penetration and neurotransmitter disruption. Endocrine and reproductive systems face particular vulnerability due to polymer-leached disruptors and transgenerational exposure. The review identifies critical knowledge gaps in nanoparticle toxicokinetics and long-term health impacts, highlighting the need for standardized detection protocols and mixture toxicity assessments. Current evidence underscores microplastics as catalysts for chronic diseases through synergistic interactions with environmental pollutants and compromised immune responses. Mitigating this planetary health crisis demands urgent policy reforms, sustainable material innovation, and interdisciplinary research to unravel complex exposure-toxicity relationships, informing preventive strategies against plastic pollution's escalating burden on human wellbeing.