Use of Low-Cost Sensors and the Internet of Things for Environmental Monitoring of Hydraulic Systems: Potentials, Challenges, and Perspectives for Africa

The integration of low-cost sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies into environmental monitoring presents transformative opportunities for managing hydraulic systems such as potable water networks, storm water infrastructure, wastewater treatment, and irrigation schemes. This review synthesizes recent scientific literature to assess the potential and limitations of deploying these technologies across diverse contexts. We begin by defining key concepts, including hydraulic systems, low-cost sensors, and IoT architectures, and explore typical system components such as microcontrollers, communication protocols (e.g., LoRaWAN, MQTT), and cloud-based platforms. Applications in water distribution, flood forecasting, water quality monitoring, and smart irrigation are discussed, with numerous case studies illustrating real-world deployments. The advantages of low-cost, real-time, and community-based monitoring are balanced against critical challenges, including limited sensor accuracy, durability under field conditions, power constraints, data interoperability, and cybersecurity concerns. Emerging trends such as solar-powered systems, edge computing, open-source development, and AI integration are highlighted as pathways to overcoming these limitations. Special attention is given to the context of African countries, where local initiatives, start-ups, and academic institutions are pioneering innovations despite limited resources. The paper concludes with a call for participatory design, institutional support, and research-driven co-development of robust, sustainable monitoring solutions.