XR4Human D2.2: Mapping of risks and harms of eXtended reality (XR) technologies

This report has two parts. Part 1 used a scoping review method to extensively map risks and harms related to the design, development and application of XR technologies (VR, MR, AR), virtual environments, and metaverses. Through the application of qualitative content analysis, thematic categories emerged which were developed into a unique typology of risks comprising of six main themes and 19 sub-themes: 1) health and wellbeing (cognitive, psycho-emotional, socio-relational and physical), 2) autonomy (privacy, self-sovereignty, surveillance, authenticity), 3) epistemic and scientific (epistemic uncertainty, scientific uncertainty, algorithmic imperfection, manipulation), 4) normative (norm violations, rights violations), 5) structural (socio-political, economic/financial, legal), and 6) technical safety and security (security, dual use). Further considerations identified were risks pertaining to special populations (vulnerable groups), unknown risks and long-term use effects. A subsidiary aim was to map risk mitigations. Other key findings, such as geographical distribution of sources, and use cases, among others, are featured, lending to a robust discussion on the state of XR risks, potential motivators for development of XR harm mitigation-strategies, and key knowledge gaps. Finally, the review supports the XR4Human project’s proposed code of conduct for developers, as well as a XR ratings system for users. Part 2 of this report presents insights on risks and harms of virtual worlds according to European Citizens. This section is based on a literature review of the final report on 2023 European Citizens’ Panel on Virtual Worlds. European citizens’ views on emerging issues within virtual worlds are comparable with the findings from Part 1 and include health and wellbeing, autonomy, normative standards, structural impacts, and technical security. Key concerns include data privacy, mental health impacts, user consent, and protection of digital identities, aligning with many risks identified in academic literature. Additionally, citizens emphasized the need for sustainable practices in virtual world development and highlighted the importance of ethical AI use, particularly concerning surveillance and data transparency. These public insights contribute valuable context to the XR4Human project, supporting the development of policies that address both expert and citizen perspectives on risks in extended reality technologies.