The nocturnal swarming activity of the malaria mosquito: it’s not just the males.

Swarming is a key reproductive behavior in Anopheles mosquitoes, yet several aspects of its spatiotemporal dynamics remain poorly understood. In particular, the period after sunset has received little attention due to limitations in field visibility and tracking resolution. Additionally, the role of females in swarm formation, and their positional fidelity to swarm-inducing markers, has been largely overlooked. Current studies mostly focus on male swarming behavior and often ignore female contributions to swarm structure and maintenance. Addressing these gaps is essential to understand sex-specific behavioral patterns that shape malaria transmission dynamics. This study elucidates the swarming activity of virgin female and male Anopheles coluzzii under controlled laboratory conditions using infrared light-based three-dimensional tracking during and after sunset.