Discovery of Stacking Heterogeneity, Layer Buckling, and Residual Water in COF-999-NH ₂ and Implications on CO ₂ Capture

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs), with their modular architectures and tunable functionalities, provide a versatile platform to design sorbents for the direct capture of CO₂ from air. Here, we combined density functional theory, molecular dynamics, and grand canonical Monte Carlo simulations with experiment to understand structural factors for furthering COF-999-NH₂'s performance as the precursor to COF-999 for direct air CO₂ capture. Small energy differences among laterally shifted stackings suggest intrinsic stacking heterogeneity. The simulations show pronounced layer buckling coupled to extensive amine-nitrile hydrogen bonding and persistent pore water, which initiates undesired polymerization and undermines uptake. The predicted presence of water is confirmed by subsequent experiments. These insights point to a single, actionable design rule: exclude retained water by introducing hydrophobic pore environments to maximize the CO₂ capture efficiency.