UNHCR–Türkiye Relations Over Time: Fluctuations, Continuities and Strategic Use of Informality

Abstract This article studies United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)’s more than six-decade-long presence in Türkiye, spanning markedly different political and legal contexts. Over the past three decades (post-1994), Türkiye’s asylum framework has undergone a process of gradual formalisation, including a clearer role definition for UNHCR in legal instruments, whereas the earlier decades (1960–1994) were characterised by more open informality. Nevertheless, significant continuities persist. Despite relative formalisation, both periods share a common thread of informality and discretionary decision-making in practice, which UNHCR navigated and strategically engaged with. Further, the relations between UNHCR and Türkiye, as well as the agency’s role, did not evolve unidirectionally in either period, but rather through shifts, ruptures, and cycles in law and practice. These fluctuations mirrored Türkiye’s intentionally ad hoc approach to refugee protection, further complicated by its geographical limitation under the Refugee Convention. Prioritising cooperation, UNHCR pragmatically worked with informal solutions, which enabled it to achieve objectives within its mandate that might otherwise have been out of reach. By examining – through the lens of UNHCR–Türkiye relations – the persistent role of informality across changing political and legal contexts, the article aims to contribute to the literature on UNHCR–State relations and on the role of informality in migration governance.