The green shift: Evaluating cost-effective and eco-friendly technologies for produced water treatment

Produced water (PW), a byproduct of oil and gas extraction, poses significant environmental challenges due to its complex composition and large volume. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluate the performance, cost-effectiveness, and environmental integration of existing PW treatment technologies. A total of 1,134 studies were identified through structured database searches and screened using PRISMA guidelines. The treatment methods were categorized into engineered, nature-based, and hybrid systems. Membrane filtration and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) demonstrated high removal efficiencies (up to 99%) but were associated with elevated operational costs and energy demands. In contrast, nature-based solutions such as constructed wetlands and biofiltration systems exhibited lower energy footprints and enhanced ecological compatibility, although with relatively modest treatment efficiencies. It was observed that Constructed Wetlands, Biofiltration have the lowest levelized cost (0.28 – 0.50 USD/m³) due to cheap capital expenditure and energy usage, but their efficiency (about 65-75%) is lower. Future research should prioritize the integration of green infrastructure, life-cycle cost assessments, and technology coupling to enhance environmental resilience. This study serves as a decision-support tool for industry practitioners and policymakers to guide sustainable PW treatment interventions. • Membrane and AOP technologies deliver up to 99% removal at high energy and cost. • Wetlands and biofilters are greener and cheaper, though less efficient. • Hybrid systems like biochar adsorption strike a balance between performance and sustainability. • Big potential lies in lowik-cost, eco-thriving solutions via green infrastructure and life-cycle analysis.