A Benchmark Model for Earthquake-Resistant Earthen Houses in Rural Afghanistan

Afghanistan experiences frequent damaging earthquakes, and the widespread use of unreinforced adobe and Pakhsa construction leads to high casualty rates and severe housing losses. Traditional earthen buildings exhibit low tensile capacity, rapid stiffness degradation, and brittle failure, often collapsing at drift levels below 0.5–0.6% or at modest ground motions. Reinforcement techniques evaluated in international experimental studies—such as timber confinement, flexible steel wire mesh, geogrids, and high-quality plastic fencing—have demonstrated measurable improvements, including 30–200% increases in lateral strength, three- to seven-fold increases in ductility, and out-of-plane capacity enhancements of more than two-fold when properly anchored. This study synthesises research findings and global earthen building codes and guidelines to develop a practical, context-appropriate benchmark house model for Afghanistan. The proposed model integrates representative wall geometries, concentrated flat-roof loading, and realistic construction capabilities observed across the country. Three reinforcement alternatives are presented, each designed to be low-cost, compatible with locally available materials, and constructible without specialised equipment. By linking quantitative performance evidence with context-specific construction constraints, the study provides a technically grounded and implementable pathway for improving the seismic safety of rural earthen dwellings in Afghanistan. The proposed benchmark model offers a robust foundation for future national guidelines and for the design and retrofitting of safer, more resilient housing.