Geographical patterns in the distribution of naturalized plants in Central America

Non-native plant species are on the rise globally, yet the distribution patterns and environmental drivers in biodiversity-rich regions such as Central America remain poorly understood. These species are affecting biodiversity, ecosystem integrity, and conservation efforts, especially when they become invasive. We analyzed the spatial distribution of 751 naturalized plant species using more than 42,000 records collected through the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) across the seven countries in Central America. We evaluated the influence of environmental variables, human population density, protected areas, and life zones on both occurrence and species richness. Human population density appeared as the strongest predictor of naturalized species occurrence and richness, highlighting the role of human activity in promoting invasions. The annual mean temperature and biodiversity integrity were negatively associated with the occurrence and species richness. Tropical rainforests and other humid life zones have more naturalized species than expected by chance. Protected areas had fewer naturalized species overall, but a higher species: observation ratio, showing both conservation value and vulnerability. Naturalized rare species, in terms of the number of records, were found outside protected zones, particularly in disturbed and urbanized areas. Our findings highlight the need for early detection, targeted management, and strengthened protection strategies, especially in mid-elevation zones and densely populated areas. By identifying key environmental and anthropogenic drivers and the most affected regions, this study offers actionable insights for conservation planning and invasive species management in one of the world’s most biodiverse and socio-environmentally vulnerable regions.