Online Romance Fraud as a Form of Emotional and Economic Partner Violence: A Social-Ecological Framework of Enabling Factors

Online romance fraud (ORF) is a complex form of cyber-enabled fraud, characterised by manipulative techniques and dynamics akin to those observed in domestic violence, coercive control, and intimate partner violence. In ORF, fraudsters employ persuasive strategies to build trust and establish fictitious relationships, subsequently exploiting victims financially and emotionally. This article examines ORF and identifies enabling factors, including risk and protective factors, that contribute to ORF. The analysis draws on findings from scholarly and grey literature and is guided by the social-ecological framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1986; Stokols, 1996, 2018) and routine activity theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979), both of which inform holistic crime prevention. The analysis highlights the multifaceted enabling factors and dynamics that influence ORF susceptibility and victimisation, particularly in the Nordic and Norwegian contexts. This article offers a holistic framework to address ORF and enhance crime-prevention strategies, conceptualising the phenomenon as a hybrid of cyber-enabled fraud and emotional and economic partner violence, thereby informing future research and practice.