Spatiotemporal patterns and drivers of ecosystem service interactions in karst regions: Insights for environmental protection and sustainability

Comprehending the interrelationships among ecosystem services (ESs) across temporal and spatial scales is fundamental for effective ES management. In this study, correlation analysis, geographically weighted regression (GWR), self-organizing maps (SOMs), and random forest modeling (RFM) were used to comparatively analyze the interrelationships among eight ESs at grid (1 km × 1 km) and township scales in a karst region of China from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that food production (FP) exhibited the greatest increase, whereas water purification rate (WP) changed minimally. Nine ES pairs exhibited trade-offs, primarily involving the FP, whereas most of the other ES pairs demonstrated synergies. Four distinct ecosystem service bundles (ESBs) were identified at both scales, although their composition and abundance varied. Natural, anthropogenic, and landscape pattern factors influenced ESs differently at different scales. This study reveals complex multiscale ES interactions and offers guidance for spatial planning and sustainable ES management in karst regions.