An evaluation of the effects of universal free school meals on secondary school-aged pupils’ dietary intakes in England: a natural experiment

Although we found almost no lunch-type and intervention/control interaction effects on mean change in pupils' dietary intakes, inferences about dietary effectiveness require careful consideration. Reasons include only a small number of pupils took up the UFSM offer, there may be a delay between implementation and take-up, and we do not know how the offer of UFSM was communicated to parents and/or pupils. This study highlights a need for better understanding of reasons for poor take up and whether take up will change over time post policy implementation. Wider challenges pertinent to school food, such as, the quality and availability of food on offer, and the dining environment, remain important considerations to maximise the nutritional benefit of universal free school meal policy changes.