Graphene oxide in the fight against viruses: from biosensing and antiviral action to protective materials and vaccine delivery

Graphene oxide (GO) has evolved from a laboratory curiosity into a practical and multifunctional material against viral threats. Owing to its large surface area, adjustable surface chemistry, sharp-edged 2D morphology, and intrinsic conductivity, GO finds utility throughout the pandemic response pipeline including fast diagnostics, direct virion inactivation, antiviral coatings, and vaccine delivery. This review compiles and critically evaluates evidence of how GO captures and ruptures viruses, how GO-enabled biosensors deliver rapid, low-volume, label-free detection, how GO composites add self-disinfecting and washable functionality to textiles, and how GO scaffolds present antigens and boost mucosal and systemic immunity. By connecting molecular mechanisms with real-world implementations, this review underscores how GO can serve as a platform technology bridging diagnostics, protection, and vaccination for future pandemic preparedness.