Coordinated Truck–Shovel Allocation for Heterogeneous Diesel and Electric Truck Fleets in Open-Pit Mining Using an Improved Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm

Efficient truck–shovel allocation is essential for optimizing open-pit mining operations, but the integration of heterogeneous diesel and electric fleets introduces complex scheduling challenges, including charging requirements, range limitations, and equipment capacity constraints. This study proposes an integrated allocation framework tailored to heterogeneous fleets, formulating a multi-objective optimization model that minimizes transportation cost and waiting time under realistic constraints. An enhanced multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm with adaptive penalty mechanisms is developed, providing superior convergence and computational efficiency compared to traditional methods. A case study demonstrates that heterogeneous fleets achieve a better trade-off, with a balanced fleet configuration reducing transportation cost by 26.1% and waiting time by 19.2% compared to pure diesel and electric fleets, respectively. Sensitivity analyses reveal that fluctuations in fuel and electricity prices reshape the trade-off, while faster charging enhances electric truck competitiveness but increases diesel idle time. These findings offer practical insights for configuring heterogeneous fleets and adapting scheduling strategies in dynamic energy and technology environments, supporting sustainable mining operations.