From failure to function: recycling spent lithium-ion batteries for catalytic applications

With the large-scale deployment and continuous retirement of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), the resource utilization of spent LIBs has become a research focus in the field of energy and environmental science. Traditional element recovery strategies contribute to resource conservation and environmental protection but are often constrained by complex procedures, high costs, and low product value, limiting their economic sustainability. Developing high-value regeneration pathways is therefore essential for the sustainable growth of the LIB recycling industry. The cathode materials of LIBs, rich in multivalent transition-metal oxides with abundant oxygen vacancies and redox activity, and the graphite anodes with high conductivity and structural defects, offer promising precursors for catalyst fabrication. Recycling these electrodes into functional materials for electrocatalysis and environmental catalysis provides an effective route for value-added utilization of spent LIBs. This review systematically analyzes the feasibility and recent progress in converting spent LIBs into catalysts, emphasizing their applications in electrocatalysis (OER, ORR, HER), organic pollutant degradation, and multifunctional catalytic systems. The major challenges are summarized, and future research directions are proposed, including the development of green, low-energy synthesis routes, controllable structural and interfacial design, and comprehensive life-cycle and techno-economic assessments. This work aims to provide an integrated understanding and theoretical reference for the high-value recycling of spent LIBs, promoting their deeper integration into green and sustainable development frameworks.