Harmony but not uniformity: A narrative inquiry of in-group value creation in independent travel groups to Lijiang, China

This study explores how individual and collective value are dynamically created within independent travel groups (ITGs) in Lijiang, China. Drawing on field research and grounded in Service-Dominant logic, social practice theory, and Pre-Qin Confucian philosophy, we identify two interwoven value creation pathways: “ We value co-creation” and “ I value creation.” Conceptualized as micro-ecosystems, ITGs are examined through a four-element practice framework comprising autonomy-connection meaning orientations, dual-layer competences, hybrid service systems, and multi-level institutions, which explains how autonomy and group cohesion are continually negotiated within travel groups. The hybrid service systems function as “the third smart companion,” facilitating value realization and group coordination. Culturally, the Pre-Qin Confucian principle “harmony without uniformity” offers a lens to reinterpret co-creation beyond the collectivism–individualism dichotomy. This research advances theoretical understanding of group travel and offers actionable insights for destination governance, service design, and digital mediation in tourism contexts.