Thermo-Fluid Dynamics Modelling of Liquid Hydrogen Storage and Transfer Processes

The use of liquid hydrogen (LH2) as an energy carrier is gaining traction across sectors such as aerospace, maritime, and large-scale energy storage due to its high gravimetric energy density and low environmental impact. However, the cryogenic nature of LH2, with storage temperatures near 20 K, poses significant thermodynamic and safety challenges. This review consolidates the current state of modelling approaches used to simulate LH2 behaviour during storage and transfer operations, with a focus on improving operational efficiency and safety. The review categorizes the literature into two primary domains: (1) thermodynamic behaviour within storage tanks and (2) multi-phase flow dynamics in storage and transfer systems. Within these domains, it covers a variety of phenomena. Particular attention is given to the role of heat ingress in driving self-pressurization and boil-off gas (BoG) formation, which significantly influence storage performance and safety mechanisms. Eighty-one studies published over six decades were analyzed, encompassing a diverse range of modelling approaches. The reviewed literature revealed significant methodological variety, including general analytical models, lumped-parameter models (0D/1D), empirical and semi-empirical models, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models (2D/3D), machine learning (ML) and artificial neural network (ANN) models, and numerical multidisciplinary simulation models. The review evaluates the validation status of each model and identifies persistent research gaps. By mapping current modelling efforts and their limitations, this review highlights opportunities for enhancing the accuracy and applicability of LH2 simulations. Improved modelling tools are essential to support the design of inherently safe, reliable, and efficient hydrogen infrastructure in a decarbonized energy landscape.