Adoption and use of artificial intelligence tools in education: a UTAUT2-based study of school and university students in Surat city

Artificial intelligence is rapidly advancing becoming increasingly pervasive. AI is expected to impact various professional and personal domains. Amidst the various available applications of AI, there are many which can be used in education for writing, correcting grammar, paraphrasing, rewriting, referencing, citation, creating text including creative writing tasks and adaptive writing style modifications. There are tools which help students solve math problems and even write full length essays or answers to questions. All these tools could facilitate education, educators and learners profoundly, provided they are used ethically and wisely. The paper seeks to examine the factors affecting the adaptability of open source or free versions of Artificial Intelligence tools by school and university students between grade 9 to university (age between 14 and 22 years) for their academic work. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT2) model has been deployed for the same. The sample consisted of 165 students from schools as well as university in Surat city using non-probability judgemental technique of sampling. Descriptive research design was deployed. The measurement scale consisted of 27 items of the UTAUT2 scale. Literature review and structural equation modelling using Smart PLS were the methods used for analysis. Path analysis shows that Habit, Facilitating Conditions, and Social Influence strongly influence Behavioural Intention and Use Behaviour. Indirect effect analysis confirms Behavioural Intention mediates these relationships. The study finds Behavioural Intention (R² = 0.801) and Use Behaviour (R² = 0.705) as key mediators of technology adoption among students.. Habit, Facilitating Conditions, and Social Influence exert the strongest direct influence. The model fit indices confirm robustness, emphasizing ease of use, enjoyment, and habitual engagement underscoring the need for tailored strategies in education. Policymakers, educators, and tech providers can enhance students’ technology adoption by ensuring ease of use, adequate support, habit formation, and engaging content. Promoting social influence, demonstrating learning benefits, and implementing age-appropriate policies will drive effective and sustained digital learning.