Vulcan version 4.0 high-resolution annual carbon dioxide emissions in the U.S. for the 2010–2022 time period

This paper describes Vulcan version 4.0, a dataset representing annual United States carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel and cement production at high spatial resolution for the 2010-2022 time period. It updates the Vulcan version 3.0 data product previously reported in the literature. While the "native" spatial resolution of Vulcan is at the point, line, and US Census block spatial scale, we report here on the results placed into a 1 km × 1 km spatial grid at an annual time resolution. The approach uses multiple federal, state, and local data sources to estimate the CO₂ emission magnitude and distribute those emissions in space and time. Given the increased interest in greenhouse gas mitigation at sub-national scales, this data offers a better understanding of the emitting landscape enabling more targeted, efficient policy instruments. The Vulcan output offers the scientific community CO₂ emissions applicable to a wide range of study fields, including carbon cycle science, climate science, environmental policy, urban planning, and socioeconomic research.