Ecological hotspots across the global citrus supply chain: A comprehensive life cycle assessment

Global demand for fruits and vegetables is rising, intensifying pressures on land, water, and energy, and driving post-harvest losses that waste ∼30% of annual production. Such losses, together with energy-intensive cold chains, amplify greenhouse gas emissions. Amidst these concerns, the environmental impact of the fruit and vegetable value chain, particularly the transcontinental cold chain, is gaining attention but remains largely unexplored. Here, we quantify the environmental impacts of the intercontinental citrus supply chain from South Africa to the Netherlands using life cycle assessment. By evaluating 16 impact indicators, including water use, land use, freshwater ecotoxicity, and marine eutrophication, we capture hidden burdens typically overlooked in carbon-focused studies. Cultivation dominates water-use impacts (99%), exacerbating risks in water-scarce regions, and accounts for 68% of freshwater ecotoxicity due to chemical inputs. In the post-harvest stages, overseas shipment contributes 62% to the impact of photochemical ozone formation and 52% to the impact of marine eutrophication, highlighting the need for low-carbon transport solutions. Cardboard box production for transport ranks as the second-highest post-harvest contributor to environmental impacts. Aggregated into a weighted single score, pre-harvest activities contribute 56% of total impacts, primarily from irrigation and agrochemicals. These findings pinpoint the ecological hotspots in global fruit trade and underscore the urgency of sustainable irrigation, low-carbon logistics, and material efficiency. Our holistic approach not only identifies ecological hotspots across a real-world, global fruit chain but also establishes citrus as a model system for assessing the sustainability of perishable, globally traded commodities. Our results provide a robust evidence base for policy, supply chain optimisation, and digital tools that support sustainable intercontinental food systems.