Risk-related directive speech acts: A vignettes study on differences in leader and follower communication in the German rescue and fire services

• Vignette study on directive speech acts in tactical team risk situations. • Contextual and cultural factors shape non-technical skills. • Leaders and followers show distinct response patterns across domains. • Followers’ directive speech acts increase with perceived risk. • Follower traits weakly predict behaviour; age significant in fire service. Tactical teams in fire and rescue services must be capable of adapting to hazardous environments. A key prerequisite for adaptability in the interest of reliability and safety is the ability of team members to actively engage in directive speech acts. That is, to signal potential threats and initiate corrective action. This study compares directive speech acts across the two domains, focusing on risk, team role (leader versus follower), and individual characteristics. A logistic mixed regression approach was applied to data from an online survey. Four models were generated to test two interaction hypotheses: domain × role (H1) and domain × follower characteristics (H2). The sample consisted of 822 members of fire and rescue services, each evaluating three domain-specific and risk-graded scenarios (vignettes). The findings indicate that speech acts of leaders and followers are symmetrical in the rescue service, whereas they follow a complementary pattern in the fire service (H1). In both domains, followers adjust their responses according to perceived risk. Regarding individual characteristics (H2), age emerged as predictor of speak-up in the fire service. Notably, perceived psychological safety did not predict speaking up in either domain. The use of directive speech acts differs between domains, reflecting culturally embedded role expectations. In the rescue service, these are shaped by interprofessional dynamics, particularly negotiation of authority between physicians and paramedics – whereas in the fire service, directive speech acts align with hierarchical structures within a single profession. Safety interventions aimed at improving directive speech acts must be context- and culture-sensitive.