Ecological Effects of PLES Transformation Along Topographic Gradients in the Yellow River Basin

As a crucial ecological security barrier in China, the Yellow River Basin faces pressing challenges in balancing human activities and environmental sustainability. This study introduces the production–living–ecological space (PLES) framework to analyze land transformation and its ecological consequences from 1995 to 2024. Using land use transfer matrices, landscape metrics, the InVEST model, and geographical detector analysis, we quantified the spatiotemporal evolution of PLES and its impacts on landscape patterns and habitat quality across topographic gradients. Results show that living space consistently expanded, primarily at the expense of production and ecological spaces, leading to increased landscape fragmentation and habitat degradation. These adverse effects were most severe in low-topographic areas, revealing a clear topographic gradient effect. Both natural and anthropogenic drivers jointly shaped the spatial heterogeneity of ecological impacts. The key contribution of this study lies in systematically coupling PLES transitions with topographic gradients, offering a spatially explicit perspective for understanding regional human–environment interactions. Our findings provide a scientific basis for designing differentiated ecological restoration and spatial governance strategies in the Yellow River Basin, supporting its sustainable development under China’s national strategic framework.