Artisanal and small-scale mining in Nigeria

Introduction Global and African perspectivesArtisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is a global practice with various definitions depending on the contexts and organizations involved (Nhlengetwa, 2019).Generally, ASM encompasses mining by individuals or small groups employing minimal mechanization (Hentschel, Hruschka, & Priester, 2003).The United Nations defines "small-scale mining" based on production levels or exploitation methods, while "artisanal" refers to rudimentary tools and limited capital investment (Nhlengetwa, 2019).Mining, one of humanity's ancient activities, is vital economically but poses hazards occupationally and environmentally (Silva, 2016).Typically poverty-stricken, ASM miners often lack experience and work under precarious conditions (Oramah, Richards, Summers, Garvin, & McGee, 2015).Despite its risks, ASM is a significant livelihood for millions globally, particularly in developing countries (Atoyebi, 2022).Moreover, ASM is prevalent in developing regions, sustaining millions and contributing substantially to the global mineral output (Hentschel et al., 2003).It also bolsters livelihoods and economies in Africa (Schwartz, Lee, & Darrah, 2021).Artisanal miners tend to transition from farming to mining for supplemental or primary income (Musah-Surugu, Owusu, Yankson, & Ayisi, 2018).In some areas, ASM surpasses farm-ing as the main income source.Despite the challenges, many individuals continue to engage in ASM out of economic necessity.In Africa, many nations participate in ASM, with 23 Sub-Saharan African countries heavily relying on it as a vital income source for rural communities (Paschal, Kauangal, & Nuhu, 2024).The historical background of ASM in Nigeria can be traced back to the pre-colonial era, when indigenous communities engaged in small-scale mining activities, extracting tin, gold, and iron for trade and local use (Morrison, 1977).ASM became particularly popular in the early 20th century, with the establishment of tin mining in Jos, Plateau.Following the indigenization decree of the 1970s, local participation in mining increased as expatriate companies withdrew, leading to a surge in informal mining activities.The structural adjustment programs of the 1980s further accelerated the expansion of ASM, as declining formal employment drove rural populations to engage in mining for survival (Brown, 2020).Its rapid proliferation since the 1990s has transformed it into a significant socio-economic and policy issue, drawing attention for its environmental, security, and developmental implications.It has been argued that the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were designed without considering ASM, a significant developmental oversight for Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the poorest regions of the world (Hilson & Maconachie 2020).ASM is often carried out informally and illegally because formal licensing processes are both costly and highly complex.This environment allows miners to evade taxes and operate in areas with minimal state oversight.Considering its potential to gener- 23 2 2025 184 ate revenue, the negative impacts of mining frequently outweigh its benefits.This indicates that formalizing and supporting ASM-low-tech, labor-intensive mineral processing and extraction-would help governments in Sub-Saharan Africa meet several targets associated with the SDGs.1.2 Research question Over the past several decades, numerous scholars have highlighted the need for sustainable practices in ASM to mitigate its negative consequences (Maconachie & Binns, 2007).These studies underscore the multifaceted nature of ASM, encompassing its impact on poverty alleviation, environmental sustainability, gender dynamics, and governance.ASM can contribute to livelihood (Bryceson & Jnsson, 2010), although these challenges continue to threaten the success of governance and sustainable development.The literature on ASM in Nigeria is expanding, yet most studies provide fragmented insights or superficial overviews.This narrow focus fails to capture the sector's full complexity, which is crucial for developing effective governance strategies.Although some researches have examined the economic, environmental, or institutional dimensions of ASM, these aspects are often treated in isolation.For instance, Eniowo, Kilambo, & Meyer (2022) investigate ASM's role as a livelihood provider, Awomeso et al. (2017) explore its environmental consequences, and Oramah et al. (2015) highlight institutional weaknesses.However, these studies do not offer an integrated framework explaining how economic pressures, governance deficits, and environmental impacts are causally linked.This research addresses that gap by proposing a holistic framework that connects economic motivations, governance structures, and environmental outcomes.By moving beyond siloed analyses, this approach provides a comprehensive understanding of ASM.It not only enriches academic discourse but also offers policymakers an actionable roadmap to tackle root causes rather than symptoms-supporting efforts to formalize the sector and align it with the SDGs.An integrated framework is underscored by evidence showing that single-sector interventions often fail to address ASM's multifaceted challenges, whereas only a coordinated, policy-relevant approach can generate sustainable solutions by embedding these connections into policy design and ensuring that governance responses are not only technically sound but also contextually grounded and systemically effective (Wilson et al., 2015).The current work examines the opportunities and challenges faced by ASM in Nigeria, specifically regarding attaining the 2024 from https://enactafrica.org).