Social and Environmental Drivers of Birdwatching in Brazil: Implications for Conservation Planning

Background and Research Aims: Birdwatching is an important nature-based activity with growing relevance for conservation. Despite its potential, a clear understanding of the specific socio-environmental factors driving birdwatching activity in biodiversity-rich tropical countries like Brazil remains underexplored. This study examined which municipal-level factors influence birdwatching activity across Brazil. Methods: We analyzed data from WikiAves, a Brazilian citizen science platform, to assess birdwatching activity across all 5,565 municipalities. We tested associations between birdwatching records and several variables, including population size and density, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), tourism infrastructure, species richness, accessibility, and coverage of protected areas. Generalized linear models were used to quantify these relationships. Results: Birdwatching activity was positively related to more populous and economically developed municipalities but negatively affected by high population density. Tourism infrastructure and species richness were also significant predictors. Surprisingly, protected areas had a minor influence. Overall, birdwatching remained concentrated in a limited number of municipalities that combined wealth, lower density, high biodiversity, and tourism appeal. Conclusion: Birdwatching in Brazil remains geographically restricted. Understanding the drivers of this activity is crucial for guiding sustainable tourism policies and conservation planning. Implications for Conservation: Our findings highlight the need for targeted conservation strategies. Promoting birdwatching in municipalities combining wealth, lower density, biodiversity, and tourism appeal, while considering its localized concentration, can enhance biodiversity conservation and generate local benefits.