Exploring the Mediating Role of Teacher–Student Interaction in Technology-Enhanced Vocational Education: Evidence from a Structural Equation Modelling Study

<ns7:p> The integration of digital technology in vocational education has redefined instructional delivery and learner engagement. However, the extent to which technology enhances learning depends largely on the quality of teacher–student interaction. This study investigates the mediating role of Teacher–Student Interaction (TSI) in the relationship between the Technology-Enhanced Learning Environment (TEL) and Learning Engagement (LE). Drawing on the Community of Inquiry (CoI) and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) frameworks, this research tested a structural model to explain how interaction bridges technological and pedagogical processes in vocational learning contexts. A total of 362 valid responses were collected from vocational students across Indonesia using a stratified sampling approach. The data were analyzed through Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using SmartPLS 4 with 5,000 bootstrap samples. The results demonstrated that TEL positively influenced TSI (β = 0.71, <ns7:italic>p</ns7:italic> &lt; .001) and LE (β = 0.39, <ns7:italic>p</ns7:italic> &lt; .01). Moreover, TSI significantly predicted LE (β = 0.53, <ns7:italic>p</ns7:italic> &lt; .001). The indirect pathway from TEL to LE through TSI was also significant (β = 0.37, <ns7:italic>p</ns7:italic> &lt; .001), indicating partial mediation with a Variance Accounted for (VAF) of 48.7%. The model achieved an excellent fit (χ <ns7:sup>2</ns7:sup> /df = 2.31, CFI = 0.953, TLI = 0.947, SRMR = 0.046, RMSEA = 0.048) and explained 55% of the variance in TSI and 68% in LE. These findings affirm that technology integration enhances learning engagement primarily when mediated by active teacher–student interaction. The study underscores that digital transformation in vocational education must emphasize pedagogical presence and communicative interaction to sustain engagement, particularly in remote and under-resourced (3T) regions. </ns7:p>