Surface-State Engineering for Generation of Nonlinear Charge and Spin Photocurrents

We systematically explore the generation of nonlinear charge and spin photocurrents using spin-orbit split surface states. This mechanism enables net DC flow along the surface plane even in centrosymmetric bulk environments like the Rashba prototype Au(111), where we characterize the main quadratic contributions by combining model predictions with density functional calculations. We further identify the Tl/Si(111) surface as a prime scenario for experimental verification; with slight doping, it develops metallic surface states featuring remarkable relativistic properties deviating from the Rashba paradigm, while the bulk remains semiconducting. Its nonlinear charge photocurrent reveals a distinct angular signature and a magnitude comparable to bulk ferroelectrics, highlighting the potential of surface-state photocurrents for low-bias optoelectronic applications. Moreover, the nontrivial spin texture of its surface states enables the generation of pure out-of-plane spin-polarized currents, offering a highly versatile nonlinear spin-filtering functionality beyond the conventional spin Hall effect.