Graphene-enabled glucose biosensors: Toward flexible, non-invasive, and wearable technologies

The global diabetes epidemic necessitates precise, affordable, and continuous glucose monitoring technologies. Graphene and its derivatives, with their high conductivity, tunable chemistry, and mechanical flexibility, have enabled major advances in glucose biosensing. Unlike prior reviews, this article emphasizes the translation of graphene-based sensors from laboratory studies to clinically relevant, wearable, and non-invasive systems. We highlight recent progress in laser-induced graphene (LIG) electrodes for low-cost, flexible platforms; hybrid nanostructures with transition metals and oxides for enzyme-free sensing with improved stability; and field-effect transistor (FET) and plasmonic devices achieving attomolar–femtomolar detection in sweat, saliva, and tears. Comparative analysis with commercial continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) underscores graphene’s potential to overcome challenges of enzyme degradation, biofouling, and cost. Fabrication strategies such as printing, microfluidics, and smartphone integration further advance prospects for real-time point-of-care use. This review provides a critical evaluation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic graphene-enabled glucose sensors across electrochemical, optical, and transistor modalities. It discusses benchmarks of sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, and identifies gaps in reproducibility, standardization, and regulatory approval. By focusing on clinical translation, wearable integration, and commercialization pathways, this work outlines how graphene-based biosensors could transform diabetes management beyond conventional enzymatic strips and current CGMs.