Motherhood Penalty and Fatherhood Premium: Insights From Empirical Research in China

This study employs quantile regression, fixed-effects regression, and other statistical methods to examine the “motherhood penalty” (MP) and “fatherhood premium” (FP) using China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) data from 1989 to 2015. Quantile regression results indicate that after controlling for standard labor market return characteristics, an increase in motherhood proportion significantly reduces earnings among low-income women, while the expansion of fatherhood steadily enhances wages at lower quantiles. Fixed-effects regressions further reveal persistent long-term effects: women’s earnings decline by approximately 15% following childbirth and do not recover over time, whereas men’s wages remain around 20% higher than their pre-fatherhood levels, exhibiting a stable premium without signs of convergence. The FEIS model suggests that prospective mothers already experience earnings reductions before childbirth, reinforcing cumulative labor market disadvantages. These findings highlight the inadequacies of existing fertility support and gender equality policies. Strengthening employment protections, optimizing parental leave policies, and promoting workplace inclusivity are essential to mitigating fertility decline, advancing gender equity, and fostering sustainable socioeconomic development. JEL Classification: J16; J31; C21