Change and Continuity in English Armies, 1453–1513

Abstract This article explores how and why English armies changed between the mid-fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. It thereby addresses a topic that has hitherto not received the attention it deserves, especially the issue of change and continuity across the late medieval and early modern divide. Administrative sources, such as indentures of war and inventories, are examined to trace changes in the terminology used to describe soldiers, the weaponry with which they were equipped and ratios of different types of combatants. This evidence is used to demonstrate that the role of men-at-arms and archers changed markedly over the course of the fifteenth century, with the latter evolving into a form of hybrid infantry. The reign of Henry VII was especially significant, with key developments including the emergence of new categories of soldiers. Contrary to past assessments, the bill only became the preferred English melee weapon in the last quarter of the fifteenth century, with the pike used alongside it in large numbers. European influences were important in driving these changes, which were integrated into a distinctive English style of warfare.