Mitochondria as key targets underlying hypomagnetic field-induced biological effects

With the rapid development of human deep space exploration, prolonged exposure to hypomagnetic fields (HMF, <5 μT) - an environmental parameter with significantly reduced intensity compared to Earth's geomagnetic field (GMF) - poses unprecedented health challenges. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that HMF exposure induces negative effects on various system functions in animals, including the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, and the musculoskeletal systems and so forth. In this review, we systematically summarize the multi-level impacts of HMF on mitochondrial quality control and function, proposing mitochondria as direct and sensitive targets of HMF, with iron-sulfur clusters potentially playing a pivotal role. We also explore possible HMF-regulated signaling pathways. In conclusion, this review provides a valuable foundation for understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of HMF's potential risks to astronauts and for developing future coping strategies during spaceflight.