Effectiveness of training actions aimed at improving critical thinking in the face of mis- and disinformation: a systematic review

The threat of mis- and disinformation has prompted international bodies and researchers to propose numerous solutions to mitigate it, highlighting critical thinking (CT) as a key element to counter this phenomenon. Although evidence supports the notion that instruction can improve the ability to think critically in the face of mis- and disinformation, more analysis is needed to determine the most effective ways to develop it. This systematic review (SR) is presented in response to the need to verify the effectiveness of training actions aimed at adults, regardless of gender, origin or professional profile, to improve CT against mis- and disinformation. Specifically, the PRISMA Statement and a previously published SR protocol providing all the methodological details and steps for prospective decision-making were followed. The literature search covered 12 databases and identified 8041 articles. After several rounds of independent peer review, 17 studies were chosen as the final sample. Most of these studies employed true and quasi-experimental designs with mainly moderate risks of bias. These were instructions aimed at media and informational literacy (MIL) delivered through active learning approaches, which included CT as part of the content. The results revealed an overall improvement in the CT of the participants, who were mainly higher education students. However, not all interventions focused on developing this competence intentionally, nor did they measure it specifically. In sum, only seven studies rigorously met the eligibility criteria, highlighting the incipient nature of this topic. Moreover, the findings’ heterogeneity hindered a clear verdict on overall effectiveness. Nevertheless, key elements to consider, such as active learning, diversity of resources, and the explicit integration of CT as a core objective within robust experimental designs, were identified. The success of future interventions could depend on these factors, so further research on approaches that conceptualise and evaluate CT appropriately is needed.