Selenium-modified graphene oxide: A tri-dimensional study of its cytotoxicity and developmental effects

Graphene oxide functionalized with selenium (GO-Se) has emerged as a promising nanomaterial due to selenium's antioxidant and redox-regulating properties, yet its safety profile remains unclear. The present study systematically investigated the cytotoxic, oxidative, and developmental effects of GO-Se using normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) cells, zebrafish embryos and complementary density functional theory (DFT) calculations. GO-Se induced a dose- and time-dependent reduction in NHDF cell viability (IC₅₀ = 274.6 μg mL^-1 at 24 h), associated with oxidative stress modulation and apoptosis. Zebrafish models revealed concentration-dependent cardiac dysfunction, developmental abnormalities, and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels at ≥100 μg mL^-1. DFT analyses supported these findings by showing strong electron-accepting properties of GO-Se. Overall, the study highlights both the biomedical potential and the safety concerns of GO-Se, underlining the need for further investigations into its applicability.