Comparing voice-only navigation and paper maps in middle-aged and older adults: A randomized crossover field study of wayfinding, mood, usability, and text-mined user experiences

Independent mobility is essential for autonomy in later life, yet age-related cognitive changes make map-reading increasingly demanding. One potential alternative is voice-only navigation, which reduces reliance on visual search and map-to-world transformations. We conducted a randomized within-subject crossover study to compare voice-only navigation with a paper map in adults aged 50-69. Forty participants each walked two 800-m urban routes, once using a paper map and once guided by Apple Maps voice instructions. We measured goal completion, completion time, mood (pleasure, relaxation, vigor) and fatigue before and after each walk, and usability (System Usability Scale; SUS). Goal completion and completion time did not differ between conditions. However, participants reported feeling more relaxed after voice navigation; other mood states and fatigue showed no significant changes. Usability ratings for voice navigation were moderate (SUS 60.50 ± 2.40), indicating room for improvement. Text-mining of post-task interviews highlighted needs for clearer distance phrasing, earlier turn prompts, explicit intersection guidance, and landmark-based cues. Overall, voice-only navigation matched paper maps in performance while enhancing relaxation, consistent with lower perceived cognitive effort. Moderate usability underscores the need for design improvements, particularly in phrasing and timing. These findings warrant further investigation in adults ≥ 70 and in cognitively impaired populations.