Perfluorooctanoic acid and plastic additive Bisphenol A induce developmental impairments and oxidative stress–mediated apoptosis in Daphnia magna: An integrated toxicological assessment

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and plastic additive Bisphenol A (BPA) are considered as persistent emerging organic pollutants due to their ubiquitous and degradation resistant nature and toxicological health effects on aquatic species. Assessing their combined toxicity is critical for understanding potential chemical interactions and associated ecological risks. Therefore, the present study investigates the individual and combined effects of PFOA and BPA in Daphnia magna at environment-relevant concentrations (ERCs) of 10 µg/L and 20 µg/L for 7 days. The study focuses on developmental toxicity, apoptosis induction, enzymatic activity inhibition, and molecular docking interactions with antioxidant enzymes. Results showed higher mortality and deformity rates ( P < 0.05) in a dose-dependent manner in the combined PFOA+BPA group than single BPA and PFOA-treated groups compared to the control. Predominant malformations included loss of tail and antennae, blood clots, and carapace deformities, most evident between days 3 and 7 of exposure. Apoptosis, detected through acridine orange staining, was observed in the abdominal claw, mid-gut region, and thoracic appendages. Enzymatic assays revealed substantial inhibition of CAT, GSH-Px, and SOD activities across most treatment groups, except for GSH-Px in PFOA-exposed groups. Molecular docking further confirmed stronger binding affinities of BPA with SOD (-9.2 Kcal/mol) and GSH-Px (-9.1 Kcal/mol) than PFOA (SOD; −8.5 Kcal/mol and GSH-Px; −6.3 Kcal/mol). In conclusion, individual PFOA and BPA showed higher toxicity potential than the combined PFOA+BPA exposure, suggesting antagonistic interactions. These findings highlight the need for further mechanistic studies to better understand the toxicological impacts of PFOA and BPA on aquatic ecosystems. • Single and joint PFOA+BPA developmental toxicity and apoptosis on Daphnia magna were studies. • Antenna loss, blood clots, and carapace deformities were predominant deformities. • Apoptotic cells were localized in the abdominal claw, mid-gut, and thoracic appendages. • CAT, SOD, and GSH-Px was inhibited after individual and combined exposures. • Molecular docking revealed stronger binding affinities of BPA with SOD and GSH-Px than PFOA.