Cultural ecosystem services evaluation of urban green space among diverse age groups: An effective supply perspective

The effectiveness provision of cultural ecosystem services (CES) in urban green spaces (UGS) is a key factor in guiding human-centered land management and efficient land use. However, few studies have examined the supply-demand relationships of CES from the perspective of effective supply, that is, CES actually perceived, consumed, or utilized by residents. This study adopts an effective supply framework integrating group -specific landscape perception and behavioral feedback to examine CES supply-demand relationships in UGS across different age groups. Using Xi'an as a case study, this research employs scenario-based interviews and video recordings to identify group scene-CES associations and assess CES supply levels in UGS. A gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model is then applied to analyze the threshold effects between group behavioral activities and CES provision, and to identify effective CES supply values aligned with group's actual activity goals within the 15-min neighborhood. Finally, based on these effective supply values, a multifunctional indicator capable of quantifying the simultaneous supply characteristics of multiple CES in relation to the needs of their stakeholder groups is used to evaluate the overall CES supply-demand relationships among different age groups. The results reveal that CES supply-demand alignment is highest among the middle-aged, elderly, children, followed by young adults, and adolescents. Furthermore, the observed disparities in supply-demand relationships among groups can be attributed to redundancies in natural landscape scenes and deficits in sports activity scenes. This research provides a foundation for UGS landscape planning to enhance CES provision across all life stages. • Establish a supply-demand analytical framework from the perspective of effective supply. • Clarify scene-CES perception differences among age groups. • CES are better tailored for children, middle-aged and elderly groups. • Redundant supply in recreational services, deficit in sports activities. • Excessive landscape scenes provision is the main cause of CES imbalance.