Land use configuration optimization based on ecosystem service enhancement in Xi'an City

Integrating quantitative assessments of ecosystem services (ESs) into land use management is essential for promoting regional sustainable development, yet their application remains limited. To address this gap, this research proposed a comprehensive framework for land use optimization that explicitly incorporated ESs, with particular emphasis on enhancing their provision. Taking Xi'an City as the study area, two key ESs, i.e., water conservation and soil retention were estimated using the InVEST and RUSLE models, and three development-oriented scenarios were defined: Historical Development Scenario (HDS), Economic Development Scenario (EDS), and Ecological Conservation Scenario (ECS). Projected land use structures for 2035 under the EDS and ECS were generated using a multi-objective genetic algorithm model that incorporated varying levels of ESs enhancement, while the HDS projection was derived using a Markov model. These projections were subsequently used as inputs for the Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS) model to simulate the spatial patterns of land use in Xi'an City. The findings indicated that shrubland had the highest soil retention capacity per unit area (475.59 t/ha), whereas grassland exhibited the greatest water conservation capacity per unit area (6344.5 m 3 /ha). Forest land, cropland, and construction land dominated across all scenarios, accounting for over 94 % of the area. Cropland experienced the greatest decline, decreasing by 10.74 %, 13.03 %, and 8.52 % under the HDS, ECS, and EDS, respectively, while construction land expanded most rapidly, increasing by 14.67 %, 6.44 %, and 17.38 % under the same scenarios. Forest land increased significantly under the HDS (4.46 %) but declined under the ECS (−1.29 %) and EDS (−1.87 %). While overall land use patterns were similar across scenarios, local differences emerged: construction land under the EDS gradually expanded toward the Qinling Mountains, whereas under the HDS and ECS, forest land and grassland expanded markedly in the eastern part of the city. Overall, this research proposed an advanced framework that integrated ESs into land use optimization, offering spatial planning strategies that balanced development needs with ecological conservation. • This study assessed the ecological conditions of the Xi'an City by evaluating two key ecosystem services. • This study designed a framework integrating ecosystem services into land use optimization for their enhancement. • This study optimized land use structures and spatial patterns in Xi'an using a MOGA and the FLUS model.