Blue water footprint analysis of vernacular, modern and hybrid buildings in Iran: A sustainable approach

Vernacular buildings, which utilize materials like adobe, stone, and timber, are widely appreciated for their ecological compatibility and adaptation to local climates. However, their water footprint has received limited attention in environmental assessments. This study evaluates the water footprint of a hybrid building that integrates a traditional architectural style with a modern concrete and steel framework, comparing it with both vernacular and contemporary concrete-based structures. Applying a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in line with the Water Footprint Network (WFN) methodology, the Water Consumption Intensity (WCI) was determined to be 4.286 m³ /m² for adobe, 3.647 m³ /m² for stone, 4.609–4.72 m³ /m² for concrete, and 6.353 m³ /m² for the hybrid building. A substantial portion of this footprint originates from indirect water use associated with personnel meals during the construction phase. Sensitivity analysis showed that, among all input parameters, personnel food consistently exhibited the highest sensitivity across all five building types. The hybrid building's notably higher WCI is primarily attributable to its extended construction duration, which led to increased virtual water consumption. Despite this, the hybrid approach offers significant benefits, including enhanced structural resilience, earthquake resistance, and cultural integration. These findings underscore the environmental trade-offs inherent in combining traditional materials with modern engineering, providing valuable insight for sustainable building practices in regions facing water scarcity and seismic risk. • Blue Water footprint comparison between vernacular, modern and hybrid structures. • Examination of the relationship between structural types and sustainable construction practices. • Evaluation of the significance of vernacular materials in sustainable building design. • Impact of construction site personnel's food consumption on the overall water footprint.