Multi-perspective evaluation of human factors in advanced low-altitude transportation adoption: a virtual reality simulation study

The integration of electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) vehicles into existing transportation systems represents a paradigm shift toward advanced low-altitude transportation (ALT), yet user acceptance remains a critical barrier to successful implementation. Traditional acceptance studies rely predominantly on questionnaire-based methodologies that capture hypothetical preferences rather than experiential responses, creating significant gaps in understanding real-world adoption patterns. This study addresses these limitations through a novel virtual reality (VR) simulation platform that enables multi-perspective evaluation of ALT acceptance across three distinct stakeholder roles: ALT passengers, conventional vehicle drivers, and pedestrians. Through systematic experimentation involving 2430 test scenarios across three realistic urban environments (straight roadway, freeway merging, and complex urban driving), this research establishes comprehensive relationships between technical performance optimization and human acceptance patterns. The results demonstrate that ALT implementation yields substantial performance benefits, including 37–45% reductions in travel times and 41–80% decreases in safety-critical events across different scenarios. However, behavioral analysis reveals a critical disconnect between objective performance improvements and subjective acceptance levels. Real-time intervention measurements show that user acceptance declines significantly with increasing ALT penetration rates, from 89% acceptance at 5% penetration to 59% at 20% penetration, with over 80% of the 745 recorded interventions occurring at implementation rates exceeding 15%. Within our experimental scenarios, we observed convergence of technical performance and operational comfort indicators around 15% penetration. These simulation-based findings provide preliminary evidence that integrates technical performance optimization with human factors analysis for ALT systems. The results offer initial insights for policymakers designing pilot programs and for industry stakeholders planning sustainable urban air mobility deployment. • The co-simulation platform enables broad evaluation of technical performance and human behavioral responses for ALT. • User acceptance of ALT declines substantially when airspace density exceeds 15% penetration within experimental scenarios. • ALT integration imporves ground traffic, cutting travel time by 40% and reducing traffic conflicts by 80%. • Findings indicate phased ALT deployment near 15% penetration yields optimal gains in traffic performance and user acceptance.