Seasonal Variations of Physicochemical Parameters, Arsenic, Heavy Metals, and PAHs in Groundwater and Surface Water in Crude Oil Contaminated Community of Niger Delta, Nigeria: A Comparative Chemometric and Human Health Risk Assessment Analyses

Water contamination from petroleum-related activities remains one of the most pressing environmental and public health challenges in the Niger Delta. Yet, existing studies have largely treated heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), seasonal dynamics, and health risks in isolation. This study assessed physicochemical parameters, arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and PAHs in an oil-polluted community (Ibaa, Rivers State, Nigeria) during wet (August) and dry (February) seasons. Surface waters (Ilejor River, Ibaa Rivers, and a stream along a petroleum pipeline) and groundwaters (community well and petroleum company borehole) were analyzed using standard APHA protocols, atomic absorption spectrometry, and GC-MS. Water quality was evaluated using the Water Quality Index (WQI), Heavy Metal Pollution Index, and chemometric analysis, whereas health risks were assessed via hazard quotients (HQ) and margin of exposure (MoE). Results showed that surface waters were consistently polluted (WQI > 0.5) with Pb and As MoE values well below safety thresholds, indicating risks of reduced IQ in children, elevated blood pressure in adults, and carcinogenic potential. Groundwater from the control site was of good quality in both seasons, whereas community well water met drinking standards only in the dry season. Seasonal variation significantly influenced contaminant levels, with wet-season samples showing higher nutrient and PAH load. This is the first study in the Niger Delta to merge seasonal chemometric profiling with multi-contaminant health risk analysis across water types, offering a more holistic evidence base than previously available. The results not only expose the inadequacy of current regulatory protections but also highlight the urgent need for alternative safe water sources, stronger policy enforcement, and scalable community-level treatment solutions in oil-impacted regions.