Entropy as a marker of physiological transition during pediatric cardiopulmonary exercise testing

This research analyzed the sample entropy (SampEn) of breath-by-breath cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) data from 170 healthy pediatric participants (85 males) 8 to 18-years-old, using a Bayesian statistics approach. SampEn measures the complexity of time series data, providing quantitative insight into the predictability of breathing patterns in pediatric participants. To address non-stationarity, signals were differenced prior to SampEn calculation. In addition to sex and age group comparisons, we examined SampEn before and after the midpoint of each participant's CPET to assess how SampEn changes as exercise intensity increases. We corroborated previous findings that SampEn decreases in the later half of CPET for healthy pediatric participants for oxygen uptake <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , carbon dioxide output <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , ventilation <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , and heart rate <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow><mml:mi>H</mml:mi> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> . Females tended to have higher SampEn than their male counterparts, with a statistically significant difference between the sexes in older participants for <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> , <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> , <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mi>H</mml:mi> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , and respiratory rate <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow><mml:mi>R</mml:mi> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> . Age-related findings included: significantly higher SampEn in younger males compared to older males for <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> and <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow> </mml:math> and older female participants had a higher SampEn in older females compared to younger females for HR. These findings support SampEn as a sensitive, non-invasive marker of physiological transition during pediatric CPET, with potential applications in exercise physiology research and clinical assessment.

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Journal
Frontiers in Physiology
Published
2025-12-01
DOI
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2025.1698399
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Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
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article
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article

Entropy as a marker of physiological transition during pediatric cardiopulmonary exercise testing

Kenta Ohara, Annamarie Stehli, D. M. Cooper, Shlomit Aizik et al.
Frontiers in Physiology
Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
article

Entropy as a marker of physiological transition during pediatric cardiopulmonary exercise testing

Kenta Ohara, Annamarie Stehli, D. M. Cooper, Shlomit Aizik, Donald E. Brown, Natalie Kupperman
article en

Abstract

This research analyzed the sample entropy (SampEn) of breath-by-breath cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) data from 170 healthy pediatric participants (85 males) 8 to 18-years-old, using a Bayesian statistics approach. SampEn measures the complexity of time series data, providing quantitative insight into the predictability of breathing patterns in pediatric participants. To address non-stationarity, signals were differenced prior to SampEn calculation. In addition to sex and age group comparisons, we examined SampEn before and after the midpoint of each participant's CPET to assess how SampEn changes as exercise intensity increases. We corroborated previous findings that SampEn decreases in the later half of CPET for healthy pediatric participants for oxygen uptake <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , carbon dioxide output <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , ventilation <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , and heart rate <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow><mml:mi>H</mml:mi> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> . Females tended to have higher SampEn than their male counterparts, with a statistically significant difference between the sexes in older participants for <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> , <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>C</mml:mi> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> , <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mi>H</mml:mi> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi></mml:mrow> </mml:math> , and respiratory rate <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo> <mml:mrow><mml:mi>R</mml:mi> <mml:mi>R</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow> </mml:math> . Age-related findings included: significantly higher SampEn in younger males compared to older males for <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:msub><mml:mrow><mml:mi>O</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mrow><mml:mn>2</mml:mn></mml:mrow> </mml:msub> </mml:mrow> </mml:math> and <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:mrow> <mml:mrow> <mml:mover><mml:mrow><mml:mi>V</mml:mi></mml:mrow> <mml:mo>˙</mml:mo></mml:mover> </mml:mrow> <mml:mi>E</mml:mi></mml:mrow> </mml:math> and older female participants had a higher SampEn in older females compared to younger females for HR. These findings support SampEn as a sensitive, non-invasive marker of physiological transition during pediatric CPET, with potential applications in exercise physiology research and clinical assessment.

Frontiers in PhysiologyVol. 16
University of California, Irvine (US), Southern California Clinical and Translational Science Institute (US), University of Virginia (US)
Openalex Percentile: Top 46%
Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
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