Bones, bites, and burials: investigating a skeleton from eneolithic necropolis for evidence of probable lion attack in Bulgaria

• Reveal rare evidence of medical care and burial traditions in Eneolithic societies (ca. 4600–4200 BCE). • Identify trauma consistent with a presumed attack by a large predator, possibly a lion. • Demonstrate that the individual survived the incident, showing clear signs of healing. • Present detailed trauma documentation through high-resolution images and a 3D DEM model. • Offer new perspectives on resilience, caregiving, and community support in prehistoric communities. • Advance understanding of human–carnivore interactions in the Eneolithic world. An individual with unique cranial lesions was discovered during excavations of a Late Eneolithic necropolis near the Kozareva mound (Eastern Bulgaria). Our study aims to reconstruct and substantiate the probable scenario of a lion attack, examining how such an encounter might have occurred based on the trauma evident on the skull and postcranial bones. Comparisons of cranial bone lesions with those caused by large predators suggest this as a plausible cause. Notably, the cranial lesions show signs of healing, indicating that the individual survived the incident, which suggests a degree of community care. This aligns with the concept of bioarchaeology of care, implying that members of this Late Eneolithic society provided support to injured individuals, reflecting a developed social structure and shared responsibilities.