Hunting shapes wildlife behavioural responses to non-lethal recreational activities in a protected area

Hunting and non-lethal recreational activities are often conducted in the same or neighbouring areas of natural environments, and both trigger responses in wildlife that resemble anti-predator behaviour. A limited amount of research has assessed the combined effects of non-lethal human activities and hunting on non-target species, although understanding these effects is crucial for wildlife conservation and protected area management. This study examined the effects of different recreation and hunting intensities on the probability of detecting red deer ( Cervus elaphus ), roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) and Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx ). Data were collected from 61 pairs of camera traps placed in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany, with one camera from the pair placed on a trail and the other at a nearby location within the forest. Recurrent event analysis was used to estimate the temporal dynamics of the wildlife event rate within 24 h following a recreation event. Increased hunting intensity led to a significantly increasing avoidance of recreational activities by all species, independent of whether they were subjected to hunting or not (estimate −0.009 – 0.012, depending on species and camera placement). Proximity to recreational activities impacted the spatio-temporal interactions between wildlife and recreationists, with higher levels of recreation leading to a shorter time period during which animals returned to the respective location. Thus, for conservation management, restricting non-lethal recreational activities and improving their management while limiting hunting pressure are crucial to minimise human impacts and preserve ecological integrity.