Linking net ecosystem benefits and human activity: Regional management implications on the China’s Loess Plateau

• Net ecosystem benefits (NEB) significantly increase during 2000–2020 in the China’s Loess Plateau. • A dominant trade-off was observed between human activity and NEB. • We propose regional management measures to improve NEB in high-pressure areas. Understanding the complex interactions between human activities and ecosystem functions is a prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. Since the implementation of the “Grain for Green” Project in 1999, ecosystem functions in China’s Loess Plateau have significantly improved. However, intensified human activities have also exacerbated the pressures on the region’s fragile ecological environment. This study investigates the spatiotemporal variations in the human activity intensity index (HAI) and net ecosystem benefits (NEB) from 2000 to 2020, using expert-based assessments and an enhanced cost-benefit evaluation framework. Results indicate that HAI increased by 16.7 % and 16.6 % at the grid and county levels, respectively. NEB exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with a total increase of USD 36.2 trillion at the grid scale. At the county level, the average NEB rose by 75 %. The degree of trade-off was higher at the grid scale than at the county scale, while the synergistic areas initially expanded and then declined at both scales. Key areas for improvement and regions of lagging development were identified as priority zones for ecological management and spatial planning at both spatial resolutions. This study offers scientific insights and practical guidance for harmonizing ecological conservation with high-quality development in ecologically vulnerable regions.