Evidence of Time-dependent Diffusive Shock Acceleration in the 2022 September 5 Solar Energetic Particle Event

Abstract On 2022 September 5, a large solar energetic particle (SEP) event was detected by Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and Solar Orbiter (SolO) at heliocentric distances of 0.07 and 0.71 au, respectively. PSP observed an unusual velocity dispersion signature: particles below ∼1 MeV exhibited a normal velocity dispersion, while higher-energy particles displayed an inverse velocity arrival (IVA) feature, with the most energetic particles arriving later than those at lower energies. The maximum energy increased from about 20–30 MeV upstream to over 60 MeV downstream of the shock. The arrival of SEPs at PSP was significantly delayed relative to the expected onset of the eruption. In contrast, SolO detected a typical large SEP event characterized by a regular velocity dispersion at all energies up to 100 MeV. To understand these features, we simulate particle acceleration and transport from the shock to the observers with our newly developed SEP model—Particle ARizona and MIchigan Solver on Advected Nodes. Our results reveal that the IVA and delayed particle onset detected by PSP originate from the time-dependent diffusive shock acceleration processes. After shock passage, PSP’s magnetic connectivity gradually shifted due to its high velocity near perihelion, detecting high-energy SEPs streaming sunward. Conversely, SolO maintained a stable magnetic connection to the strong shock region where efficient acceleration was achieved. These results underscore the importance of spatial and temporal dependence in SEP acceleration at interplanetary shocks and provide new insights to understand SEP variations in the inner heliosphere.