Electrocatalytic removal of ciprofloxacin using modified Ti/TiO2 anodes with ZrO2 and Bi2O3 nanoparticles modeled via CCD-RSM approach

This research examined the electrocatalytic removal of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) using Ti/TiO₂ anodes modified with ZrO₂ and Bi₂O₃ nanoparticles. The anodes were prepared utilizing the simple electrophoretic deposition technique, leading to the development of a uniform, dense, and stable nanoparticle coating. Physicochemical characterization through field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) demonstrated a porous morphology and confirmed the presence of Ti, O, Zr, and Bi within the coating, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the crystalline TiO₂ matrix and the presence of ZrO₂ and Bi₂O₃ phases. Furthermore, electrochemical assessments indicated that the ternary nanocomposite Ti/TiO₂-ZrO₂-Bi₂O₃ anode exhibited reduced charge transfer resistance (Rct = 8925 Ω/cm²), enhanced electrocatalytic performance, and a significantly longer lifespan (approximately 150 h) compared to other samples. Moreover, according to the results derived from modeling with R² = 0.9781, the influence of operational variables was examined, revealing that acidic pH, minimal Na₂SO₄ concentration, moderate current density, and suitable process duration significantly enhanced the removal efficiency. Ultimately, the results suggest that the proposed anode has significant potential to provide researchers with new opportunities for the design and improvement of anodes.