Ordered to be gentlemen: Turkish military officers’ ambivalent commitment to Western manners

Abstract Building on the premise that etiquette ( adab-ı muaşeret ) is a crucial component in understanding Turkish cultural modernization, this article examines how the Turkish military incorporated Western manners during the Republican era. While the military’s role in supporting Westernization is well documented, less scholarly attention has been paid to the internalization and practice of Western cultural norms, particularly etiquette, within military circles. Conceptualizing manners as a disciplined and refined mode of conduct, this study investigates how Western etiquette was transmitted to military officers and integrated into their personal and professional lives. The article argues that, although military texts on etiquette presented Western manners as essential to social status and modernization, their implementation was characterized by selective adoption, ambiguity, and even resistance. These texts, often compiled by officers themselves, reflect both a desire to assert cultural authority and the complex, negotiated process of Westernization. Drawing on two primary sources – etiquette manuals and officers’ self-narratives – the study illuminates the contested and dynamic nature of adopting Western norms. This dual approach highlights the formation of a cultural identity among officers marked by eclecticism and ambivalence, revealing broader tensions within the Turkish modernization project.