Importance of hydrated aerosol particles for aerosol–fog relationships in the Italian Po Valley

Abstract. Air pollution and fog are closely connected, influencing both visibility and human health. As relative humidity rises, aerosol particles absorb water and grow hygroscopically, potentially activating into fog droplets when supersaturation is reached. Distinguishing between hydrated (non-activated) aerosols and activated particles is critical, as their differing thermodynamic states influence fog chemistry and dissipation. This study quantifies the impact of hydrated aerosol particles on fog microphysical properties and visibility in the Po Valley, one of Europe’s most polluted regions. We analyzed detailed aerosol–fog observations from the FAIRARI 2021/2022 campaign at San Pietro Capofiume, Italy, using κ–Köhler theory and the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model MIMICA. The median hygroscopicity parameter (κ) of fog residuals (0.45) exceeded that of interstitial particles (0.40) and out-of-fog aerosols (0.34), reflecting enhanced inorganic content in fog droplets. Hygroscopic growth calculations show that hydrated particles can reach several micrometers in diameter, significantly influencing inferred fog microphysical properties. Excluding hydrated aerosols led to an 81 % increase in effective diameter (from 11.6 to 21.0 µm) and an 87 % decrease in cloud droplet number concentration (from 97.4 to 12.4 cm−3). Hydrated particles contributed, on average, 21 % to liquid water content and accounted for 36 % of sub-kilometer visibility events without droplet activation. LES results emphasize that fog prediction depends strongly on the largest dry aerosol particles. Our findings demonstrate the need to distinguish between hydrated and activated particles when interpreting fog observations and modeling fog development in polluted environments.