School engagement as mediator between mobile device usage and social-emotional development for left-behind children in China

Digital transformation has reshaped educational landscapes and youth development post-COVID-19, particularly among vulnerable populations like left-behind children (LBC). This study investigates the relationships between adolescents’ spare-time mobile device usage patterns at home and their social-emotional learning (SEL) competencies through school engagement, comparing LBC and non-LBC populations. Using quantitative methods with a cross-sectional design, this study analyzed data from 405 junior secondary school students (201 LBC) in rural China, focusing on four device-related factors: usage frequency, attitudes, supervision, and technoference (technology interference). Results revealed that associations between device usage and SEL competencies were primarily mediated through school engagement. Technoference showed the strongest negative associations (total effect = -0.341), while supervision demonstrated positive associations (total effect = 0.228). The mediation patterns were more pronounced among LBC, indicating both heightened vulnerability to problematic digital engagement and enhanced responsiveness to protective factors. Despite LBC reporting higher mobile phone reliance and lower SEL competencies, their school engagement remained comparable to non-LBC and appeared to help maintain developmental trajectories. While behavioral engagement differed between groups, affective and cognitive dimensions remained stable. These findings extend developmental theories by demonstrating how digital experiences transfer between family and school context, highlighting educational institutions’ potential compensatory role for family-related vulnerabilities. This study advocates targeted interventions from multi-level stakeholders, including family-level digital supervision strategies, school-based digital literacy programs, and policies which address digital integration while considering diverse family structures. These coordinated efforts should leverage technology’s potential while supporting various family configurations in increasingly digital learning environments.